[image: College of Arms] * The officers* The Kings of Arms

The officers
The Kings of Arms grant coats of arms by letters patent. Before they can even consider the granting of arms, an application must be made to the Earl Marshal, and a fee paid.
The Kings of Arms are authorised in their patents of appointment to grant (with the consent of the Earl Marshal) to "eminent men", a phrase which first appeared in the patent of appointment of Stephen Leake as Clarenceux King of Arms in 1741. Originally, the test applied was one of wealth or social status, because any man entitled to bear a coat of arms was expected to be a gentleman. By 1530, the heralds applied a property qualification, requiring successful candidates for a grant of arms to have an income from land of £10 per annum, or movable wealth of £300. But since the heralds receive fees for granting arms, they have always had an incentive to be generous rather than restrictive in their interpretation of who should be allowed a grant. In 1616, Ralphe Brooke, York Herald, tricked Garter King of Arms, Segar, into granting a coat of arms to the common hangman for a fee of 22 shillings.
In 1673, the authority of the Earl Marshal, which the heralds had challenged, was established in its modern form by a royal declaration which stated, among other things, that no patents of arms should be granted without his consent. This established the system, which is still operated, whereby royal authority to approve candidates for grants of arms is exercised by the Earl Marshal, and royal authority to grant the arms themselves is exercised by the Kings of Arms from the College of Arms. The application to the Earl Marshal (the Duke of Norfolk) is in the form of a petition, called a "Memorial", in the name of the prospective grantee. The wording of the Memorial is important because it is closely followed (for example, as to the description of the grantee of arms by profession, place of residence, etc) in any subsequent Letters Patent containing the grant of arms.
There are no fixed criteria as to whether a modern application for a grant of arms should be allowed. If a herald is approached and does not consider that the application has merit, he may tactfully suggest to the applicant that he or she should not proceed. If it does proceed, its success or otherwise will depend on the approval of the Earl Marshal, who may apply his own standards. Peter Gwynn-Jones, Garter King of Arms, has recently written that "In practice, eligibility depends upon holding a civil or military commission, a sound university degree or professional qualification, or having achieved some measure of distinction in a field beneficial to society as a whole." (Gwynn-Jones, 1998; p 121)
If the Earl Marshal finds the application in the "Memorial" satisfactory, he will grant a Warrant authorising the Kings of Arms to proceed with the designing of arms. One of the heralds then works with the applicant to devise arms pleasing to him as well as heraldically correct. Once a final form is reached, the Kings of Arms grant letters patent (colourfully illuminated and decorated) authorising the use of arms blazoned therein to the grantee and his heirs.
They, or a differenced version of them using marks of cadency, will be inherited by all of the legitimate children of an individual and such children and their descendants may bear the arms (or a differenced version of them) from the moment of birth: they do not (as with other inheritance) have to wait for the death of the previous generation. Nor is there any requirement for the College of Arms to approve the use of the arms in each generation: the original grant of arms is the only authority required. Although daughters and sons inherit the right to bear arms for themselves personally, the right passes only through the male line: hence, a son transmits the arms to his children, but a daughter, while bearing them for herself, does not transmit them to her children. A partial exception to this rule is the case of a woman who has no brothers, or whose brothers have no issue; such a woman is called a heraldic heiress and may transmit the arms to her children as a quartering with their father's arms, and so consequently to their descendents.
The costs involved are quite substantial. The applicant does not buy a coat of arms: the arms themselves are freely given, but fees must be paid to the heralds and artists involved as professionals, and to support the buildings and other running costs of the College. Aside from the heralds' traditional nominal salaries, given above, the College of Arms is not financed by the taxpayer.

Name changes

Officer of Arms

** *"Colour film" redirects here. For the motion picture

"Colour film" redirects here. For the motion picture equivalent, see Color film (motion picture).
Color photography is photography that uses media capable of representing colors which are produced chemically during the photographic processing phase. It is contrasted with black-and-white photography, which uses media capable only of showing shades of gray, and does not include hand colored photographs. Some examples of color photography include prints, color negatives, transparencies and slides, and roll and sheet films.

Different types of color photographic processes
The first modern ("integrated tri-pack") color film, Kodachrome, was introduced by the Eastman Kodak Company in 1935, using three colored emulsions. Most modern color films, except Kodachrome, are based on technology developed for Agfacolor (as "Agfacolor Neue") in 1936. (In this newer technology, chromogenic dye couplers are already within the emulsion layers, rather than having to be carefully diffused in during development.) Instant color film was introduced by Polaroid in 1963.

Modern color film
Several commercial print methods were devised using the subtractive technique during the 1930s (see e.g. Coe, ref 1), for printing from "separation negatives". Kodachrome was the first commercially-available film of this type.

Additive: The colors are added as colored lights. In this system, the most common set of primary colors is red, green and blue (RGB). Maxwell's experiment was of this type, as are screen-plate methods, such as Autochrome. Modern digital photographs seen on a computer monitor are also viewed by addition of light from an RGB phosphor array.
Subtractive: Colors are subtracted from white light by dyes or pigments. In this system the most common set of primary colors is cyan, magenta, yellow and black (CMYK). Ducos du Hauron made several pictures by this method in the late 1800s. Basic color systems

Color negative film forms a negative (color-reversed) image when exposed, which is permanently fixed during developing. This is then exposed onto photographic paper to form a positive image.
Color reversal film, also known as slide film, forms a negative image when exposed, which is reversed to a positive image during developing. The film can then be projected onto a screen. Main types of color film in current use

Preservation Issues
Numerous factors can deteriorate and even destroy photographs. Some examples include:
However, it is important to understand that color photographic materials are not permanent and by nature are instable. Chromogenic color photographs, for example, are composed of yellow, magenta, and cyan organic dyes which fade at different rates. Even when in dark storage and enclosed in the proper archival materials, deterioration is unavoidable, but fading, color shifting, and discoloration can be delayed when given the proper preservation care.
Three signs of age that affect color photography are:
Dark fading occurs regardless of the procedures taken to preserve a photograph and is unavoidable. It is instigated by temperature and RH. Cyan dyes will typically fade more quickly, which will make the image appear too red in color.
Light fading occurs when materials are exposed to light, e.g. while on display. The intensity of the light source and ultraviolet (UV) rays will effect the rate of change and fade. Magenta dyes will typically fade the quickest.
Highlight staining occurs with older color photographic papers, and is a yellowing of the border and highlight areas of a photograph.

High temperature and high relative humidity (RH)
Air pollution and dirt
Light exposure
Biological threats such as fungi and insects
Residual processing chemicals
Base and emulsion deterioration
Handling and usage
Improper storage and enclosures
Disasters and emergencies
Dark fading
Light fading
Highlight staining Ideal storage environment
The usage of enclosures is the easiest method of preserving photographic materials from being destroyed by handling and exposure. All protective materials should pass the Photographic Activity Test (PAT) as described both by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) in standard IT9.2-1988, and the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in standard 14523:1999(E), Photography – Processed Photographic Materials – Photographic Activity Test for Enclosure Materials. The PAT is an archival science test that determines what kind of enclosures will preserve, prevent, and/or prolong from further deterioration while in storage.
It is recommended that each individual item has its own enclosure and that each enclosure chosen for a photograph is of an appropriate size. Archival enclosures may come in two different forms: paper or plastic. Choosing either option has its advantages and disadvantages.
After photographic materials are individually enclosed, housing or storage containers provide another protective barrier such as folders and boxes made from archival paperboard as addressed in ISO Standards 14523 and 10214. Sometimes these containers have to be custom-made in order to properly store odd sizes. In general, flat storage of in boxes is recommended because it provides more stable support, particularly for materials that are in more fragile condition. Still, boxes and folders should never be over-filled with materials.

Paper enclosures should be non-acidic, lignin-free paper and may come in either buffered or non-buffered stock. An advantage of paper is that it is generally less costly than plastic enclosures. The opaque quality of paper protects photographs from light exposure, but also porous quality protects photographs from humidity and gaseous pollutants. However, for images to be viewed, they must be removed from its enclosure which puts the materials at risk for mishandling and vandalism.
Archival quality plastic enclosures are made of uncoated polyester, polypropylene, or polyethylene. The transparent quality of plastic lends itself to easier access to the image because there is no extra step to remove the photograph and reduces direct contact with the materials. Plastic is also less resistant to tears in comparison to paper. However, some disadvantages include proneness to static electricity and risk of ferrotyping (in other words, can trap moisture and cause materials to stick to one another). Recommended storage

U.S. Patent 2,059,884  — Color photography Patents

See also

George Eastman
William Eggleston
Frederick Lanchester
Gabriel Lippmann
Luis Marden
Stephen Shore People

Color film (motion picture)
Chromogenic
Color printing
Color television
Film colorization
Hand-colouring
Potassium ferricyanide
Timeline of invention Other topics

Coe, Brian, Colour Photography: the first hundred years 1840-1940, Ash & Grant, 1978.
Coote, Jack, The Illustrated History of Colour Photography, Fountain Press Ltd., 1993, ISBN 0-86343-380-4
Eastman Kodak Company. (1979). Preservation of photographs. Kodak publication, no. F-30. [Rochester, N.Y.]: Eastman Kodak Co.
Great Britain, & Paine, C. (1996). Standards in the museum care of photographic collections 1996. London: Museums & Galleries Commission. ISBN 0948630426
Keefe, L. E., & Inch, D. (1990). The life of a photograph: archival processing, matting, framing, storage. Boston: Focal Press. ISBN 0240800249 9780240800240
Lavédrine, B., Gandolfo, J.-P., & Monod, S. (2003). A guide to the preventive conservation of photograph collections. Los Angeles: Getty Conservation Institute. ISBN 0892367016 9780892367016
Photograph preservation and the research library. (1991). Mountain View, Ca: The Research Libraries Group. ISBN 0879852127
Reilly, J. M. (1998). Storage guide for color photographic materials. Albany, N.Y.: University of the State of New York ... [et al.].
Ritzenthaler, M. L., Vogt-O'Connor, D., & Ritzenthaler, M. L. (2006). Photographs: archival care and management. Chicago: Society of American Archivists. ISBN 1931666172 9781931666176
Sipley, Louis Walton, A Half Century of Color, Macmillan, 1951
Time-Life Books. (1982). Caring for photographs: display, storage, restoration. Life library of photography. Alexandria, Va: Time-Life Books. ISBN 0809444208
Weinstein, R. A., & Booth, L. (1977). Collection, use, and care of historical photographs. Nashville: American Association for State and Local History. ISBN 091005021X
Wilhelm, H. G., & Brower, C. (1993). The permanence and care of color photographs: traditional and digital color prints, color negatives, slides, and motion pictures. Grinnell, Iowa, U.S.A.: Preservation Pub. Co. ISBN 0911515003
Wythe, D. (2004). Museum archives: an introduction. Chicago: Society of American Archivists. ISBN 1931666067 9781931666060 Online Collections

Library of Congress List of Photographic Preservation Supplies

* Parliamentary burgh and constituencies* Rutherglen Main

Parliamentary burgh and constituencies
Rutherglen Main Street is served by numerous bus links into Glasgow City Centre.

Railway Station
Schools in the Rutherglen area:
Non-Denominational Schools
Bankhead Primary School Bankhead Road Rutherglen G73 2BQ
Burgh Primary School 41 King Street Rutherglen G73 1JY
Burnside Primary School Glenlui Avenue Burnside Rutherglen G73 4JE
Calderwood Primary School Buchanan Drive Rutherglen
Rutherglen High School Reid Street Rutherglen G73 3DF
Stonelaw High School [1] 140 Calderwood Road Rutherglen G73 3BP
Roman Cathloic Schools
St Anthony's Primary School Lochaber Drive Rutherglen G73 5HX
St. Columbkille's Primary School Clincarthill Road Rutherglen G73 2LG
St. Mark's Primary School Kirkriggs Avenue Blairbeth Rutherglen G73 4LY
Trinity High School [2] Glenside Drive Eastfield Rutherglen G73 3LW
Information about Education Facilities in the whole South Lanarkshire area is available here.

** *Robert Kee* CBE (born 1919) is a British broadcaster,

Robert Kee CBE (born 1919) is a British broadcaster, journalist and writer, known for his historical works on World War II and Ireland. He was educated at Stowe School, Buckingham and Magdalen College, Oxford. At Oxford he was a pupil, then a friend of the historian A.J.P. Taylor.
During World War II he served in the Royal Air Force as a bomber pilot. His plane was shot down over German-occupied Holland. He was imprisoned and spent three years in a German POW camp. This gave him material for his first book A Crowd Is Not A Company. It was first published as a novel in 1947 but was later revealed to be an autobiography. It recounts his experiences as a prisoner of war and his various escapes from the Nazi camp.
His career in journalism began immediately after the Second World War. He worked for the Picture Post, then later became a special correspondent for the Sunday Times and the Observer. He was also literary editor of the Spectator.
In 1958 he moved to television where he became one of the great broadcasters of his generation. He appeared for many years on both the BBC and ITV as reporter, interviewer and presenter. He presented many current affairs programmes including Panorama (TV series), ITN's First Report and Channel 4's Seven Days. He was awarded the BAFTA Richard Dimbleby Award in 1976.
Kee wrote and presented the documentary series Ireland - A Television History in 1980. The work received great critical acclaim and was widely shown both in the United Kingdom and the United States.
As one of the "Famous Five" he launched TV-am in 1983 along with Sir David Frost, Anna Ford, Michael Parkinson and Angela Rippon.

Works

A Crowd Is Not Company (1947) POW memoirs, issued as a novel first, reissued 1982
The Impossible Shore (1949) novel
Beyond Defeat by Hans Werner Richter (1950) translator
The Five Seasons by Karl Eska (1954) translator
A Sign Of The Times (1955) novel
Vorkuta A Dramatic First Report on the Slave City in the Soviet Arctic by Joseph Scholmer (1955)
Zero Eight Fifteen. The Strange Mutiny of Gunner Asch (1955)
The Sanity Inspectors by Friedrich Deich (1956) translator
Before the Great Snow by Hans Pump (1959) translator
Broadstrop In Season (1959) novel
The Betrayed by Michael Horbach (1959) translator
Refugee World (1961)
Officer Factory by Hans Hellmut Kirst (1962) translator
Forward, Gunner Asch! By Hans Hellmut Kirst (1964) translator
The Revolt of Gunner Asch (1964) translator
The Return of Gunner Asch (1967) translator
The Most Distressful Country (1972) The Green Flag vol.1
The Bold Fenian Men (1972) The Green Flag vol.2
Ourselves Alone (1972) The Green Flag vol.3
Ireland: A History (1980)
1939: The Year We Left Behind (1984) as 1939: In the Shadow of the War (US)
We'll Meet Again - Photographs of Daily Life in Britain During World War Two (1984) with Joanna Smith
1945: The World We Fought For (1985)
A Journalist's Odyssey (1985) with Patrick O'Donovan and Hermione O'Donovan
Trial & Error: the Maguires, the Guildford pub bombings and British justice (1986)
Munich: The Eleventh Hour (1988)
The Picture Post Album: A 50th Anniversary Collection (1989)
The Laurel and the Ivy: The Story of Charles Stewart Parnell and Irish Nationalism (1993)
The Green Flag: A History of Irish Nationalism (2000) one-volume edition
Another Kind of Cinderella (1997) stories, with Angela Huth

** *The ASEAN University Network (AUN)* was founded in November

The ASEAN University Network (AUN) was founded in November 1995 by ASEAN member countries including 13 universities. After the enlargement of ASEAN by the ASEAN Charter in 1997 and 1999, the AUN membership increased to 17 member universities (with the extension of 2 universities from Myanmar, one from Laos and one from Cambodia.

Current List of AUN member universities

Universiti Brunei Darussalam

Royal University of Phnom Penh Brunei (1)


Universitas Indonesia
Gadjah Mada University

National University of Laos Cambodia (1)


Universiti Malaya
Universiti Sains Malaysia, Malaysia Indonesia (2)

University of the Philippines
De La Salle University-Manila
National University of Singapore
Nanyang Technological University Laos (1)




Chulalongkorn University
Burapha University

** Einstein · Hawking . Friedman · Lemaître · Hubble · Penzias

Einstein · Hawking . Friedman · Lemaître · Hubble · Penzias · Wilson · Gamow · Dicke · Zel'dovich · Mather · Smoot · others
Isaac Newton's theory of universal gravitation (part of classical mechanics) states the following:
Every single point mass attracts every other point mass by a force pointing along the line combining the two. The force is proportional to the product of the two masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the point masses:

Assuming SI units, F is measured in newtons (N), m₁ and m₂ in kilograms (kg), r in metres (m), and the constant G is approximately equal to 6.67 × 10. G was first accurately measured in the Cavendish experiment by the British scientist Henry Cavendish in 1798, it was also the first test of Newton's theory of gravitation between masses in the laboratory. This was 111 years after the publication of "Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica" and 71 years after Newton's death, so all of Newton's calculations could not use the value of G; instead he could only calculate a force relative to another force.
Newton's law of gravitation resembles Coulomb's law of electrical forces. Newton's law is used to calculate the Gravitational force between two masses; similarly Coulomb's Law is used to calculate the magnitude of electrical force between two charged bodies. Coulomb's Law's equation has the product of two charges in place of the product of the masses which is in Newton's Law of Gravitation. Hence, according to Coulomb's Law, the electrical force is proportional to the product of the charged bodies divided by the distance between them.

F is the magnitude of the gravitational force between the two point masses,
G is the gravitational constant,
m₁ is the mass of the first point mass,
m₂ is the mass of the second point mass,
r is the distance between the two point masses. Acceleration due to gravity
If the bodies in question have spatial extent (rather than being theoretical point masses), then the gravitational force between them is calculated by summing the contributions of the notional point masses which constitute the bodies. In the limit, as the component point masses become "infinitely small", this entails integrating the force (in vector form, see below) over the extents of the two bodies.
In this way it can be shown that an object with a spherically-symmetric distribution of mass exerts the same gravitational attraction on external bodies as if all the object's mass were concentrated at a point at its centre. (This is not generally true for non-spherically-symmetrical bodies.)
For points inside a spherically-symmetric distribution of matter, Newton's Shell theorem can be used to find the gravitational force. The theorem tells us how different parts of the mass distribution affect the gravitational force measured at a point located a distance r₀ from the center of the mass distribution:
As a consequence, for example, within a shell of uniform thickness and density there is no net gravitational acceleration.

The mass located at a radius r < r₀ causes the same force at r₀ as if all of the mass enclosed within a sphere of radius r₀ were concentrated at the center of the mass distribution (as noted above).
The mass located at a radius r > r₀ exerts no net gravitational force at r₀. I.e., the individual forces exerted by the elements of the sphere on the point at r₀ cancel each other out. Bodies with spatial extent
Newton's law of universal gravitation can be written as a vector equation to account for the direction of the gravitational force as well as its magnitude. In this formula, quantities in bold represent vectors.

where
is the force applied on object 2 due to object 1
G is the gravitational constant
m₁ and m₂ are respectively the masses of objects 1 and 2
is the distance between objects 1 and 2
is the unit vector from object 1 to 2
It can be seen that the vector form of the equation is the same as the scalar form given earlier, except that F is now a vector quantity, and the right hand side is multiplied by the appropriate unit vector. Also, it can be seen that F₁₂ = − F₂₁.

Vector form
The gravitational field is a vector field that describes the gravitational force which would be applied on an object in any given point in space, per unit mass. It is actually equal to the gravitational acceleration at that point.
It is a generalization of the vector form, which becomes particularly useful if more than 2 objects are involved (such as a rocket between the Earth and the Moon). For 2 objects (e.g. object 2 is a rocket, object 1 the Earth), we simply write instead of and m instead of m₂ and define the gravitational field as:

so that we can write:

This formulation is dependent on the objects causing the field. The field has units of acceleration; in SI, this is m/s.
Gravitational fields are also conservative; that is, the work done by gravity from one position to another is path-independent. This has the consequence that there exists a gravitational potential field V(r) such that
.
If m₁ is a point mass or the mass of a sphere with homogeneous mass distribution, the force field g(r) outside the sphere is isotropic, i.e., depends only on the distance r from the center of the sphere. In that case


Gravitational field
Newton's description of gravity is sufficiently accurate for many practical purposes and is therefore widely used. Deviations from it are small when the dimensionless quantities φ/c For example, Newtonian gravity provides an accurate description of the Earth/Sun system, since

where r_orbit is the radius of the Earth's orbit around the Sun.
In situations where either dimensionless parameter is large, then general relativity must be used to describe the system. General relativity reduces to Newtonian gravity in the limit of small potential and low velocities, so Newton's law of gravitation is often said to be the low-gravity limit of general relativity.

Theoretical concerns
The observed fact that gravitational and inertial masses are the same for all bodies is unexplained within Newton's system. General relativity takes this as a postulate. See equivalence principle.

Newton's theory does not fully explain the precession of the perihelion of the orbit of the planets, especially of planet Mercury. There is a 43 arcsecond per century discrepancy between the Newtonian prediction, which arises only from the gravitational tugs of the other planets, and the observed precession.
The predicted deflection of light by gravity using Newton's theory is only half the deflection actually observed. General relativity is in closer agreement with the observations. Disagreement with observation
While Newton was able to formulate his law of gravity in his monumental work, he was deeply uncomfortable with the notion of "action at a distance" which his equations implied. He never, in his words, "assigned the cause of this power". In all other cases, he used the phenomenon of motion to explain the origin of various forces acting on bodies, but in the case of gravity, he was unable to experimentally identify the motion that produces the force of gravity. Moreover, he refused to even offer a hypothesis as to the cause of this force on grounds that to do so was contrary to sound science.
He lamented that "philosophers have hitherto attempted the search of nature in vain" for the source of the gravitational force, as he was convinced "by many reasons" that there were "causes hitherto unknown" that were fundamental to all the "phenomena of nature". These fundamental phenomena are still under investigation and, though hypotheses abound, the definitive answer is yet to be found. In Newton's 1713 General Scholium in the second edition of Principia:
I have not yet been able to discover the cause of these properties of gravity from phenomena and I feign no hypotheses... It is enough that gravity does really exist and acts according to the laws I have explained, and that it abundantly serves to account for all the motions of celestial bodies. That one body may act upon another at a distance through a vacuum without the mediation of anything else, by and through which their action and force may be conveyed from one another, is to me so great an absurdity that, I believe, no man who has in philosophic matters a competent faculty of thinking could ever fall into it.

Einstein's solution

Newton's cannonball
Newton's laws of motion
Orbital mechanics - the analysis of Newton's laws at it applies to orbits

** [image: Image:bajer.jpg] *Fredrik Bajer* (April 21, 1837 –

Fredrik Bajer (April 21, 1837 – January 22, 1922) was a Danish writer, teacher, and pacifist politician who received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1908.
The son of a clergyman, Bajer served as an officer in the Danish army, fighting in the 1864 war against Prussia and Austria where he was promoted to the rank of first lieutenant. He was discharged in 1865, and moved to Copenhagen where he became a teacher, translator and writer.
He entered the Danish Parliament in 1872 and held a seat there for the following 23 years.
He supported many peace organizations, both inside Denmark and Europe-wide, and helped guide the passage of a bill to reach arbitration agreements with Sweden and Norway.

Quotation
"Always we must bear in mind that law has to be substituted for power, that care must be taken to serve the interests of law." Fredrik Bajer

Fredrik Bajer Quotations